Unit 9: People, Development & Environment — Full Notes

• पर्यावरण का अर्थ एवं घटक

Environment means the totality of biotic and abiotic conditions surrounding an organism and influencing its life.

पर्यावरण उन सभी जैविक और अजैविक परिस्थितियों का समग्र रूप है जो जीवों के जीवन और विकास को प्रभावित करती हैं।

• Components
• A. Biotic Components — जैविक घटक
• Plants — Producers
• Animals — Consumers
• Microorganisms — Decomposers
• B. Abiotic Components — अजैविक घटक
• Air
• Water
• Soil
• Sunlight
• Temperature
• Minerals
• Climate
• Environmental Spheres
• Ecosystem Formula

Development means improvement in economic, social and human well-being.

केवल GDP बढ़ना complete development नहीं है। Development में health, education, equality, dignity, environmental quality और opportunities भी शामिल हैं।

• Conventional Development
• Economic growth
• Industrialisation
• Infrastructure
• Urbanisation
• Higher production and consumption
• Environmental Concern

अगर development के कारण:

• Natural resources का excessive exploitation हो
• Pollution बढ़े
• Biodiversity decline हो
• Climate change तेज हो
• Vulnerable communities displace हों

तो वह development long-term में sustainable नहीं होगा।

• सतत विकास

The Brundtland Report, Our Common Future (1987), popularised sustainable development as development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

सरल अर्थ:

वर्तमान पीढ़ी की आवश्यकताओं को पूरा करना, लेकिन future generations की आवश्यकताओं और resources को नुकसान न पहुँचाना।

• Three Pillars
• Economic sustainability — आर्थिक व्यवहार्यता
• Social sustainability — समानता एवं सामाजिक न्याय
• Environmental sustainability — पर्यावरण संरक्षण

• Important Principles
• Intergenerational equity
• Intragenerational equity
• Precautionary principle
• Polluter Pays Principle
• Carrying capacity
• Resource efficiency
• Public participation
• Conservation of biodiversity
• Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
• Sustainable consumption and production
• Key Principles Explained
• Intergenerational Equity

Present और future generations के बीच resource justice।

• Intragenerational Equity

वर्तमान पीढ़ी के अलग-अलग groups और countries के बीच fairness।

• Precautionary Principle

Serious environmental damage की संभावना हो तो complete scientific certainty की प्रतीक्षा action रोकने का आधार नहीं होनी चाहिए।

• Polluter Pays Principle

Pollution करने वाले को prevention, control और restoration की cost वहन करनी चाहिए।

• Carrying Capacity

किसी ecosystem की वह maximum population/activity जिसे वह long-term degradation के बिना support कर सकता है।

• Exam Trap

Sustainable development का अर्थ development रोकना नहीं, बल्कि development को resource-efficient, inclusive और environmentally responsible बनाना है।

• सहस्राब्दी विकास लक्ष्य

MDGs were adopted following the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000 and had a target period up to 2015.

• Eight MDGs
• Recall Pattern

• सतत विकास लक्ष्य

SDGs were adopted in 2015 under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and came into effect from 2016.

• Goals: 17
• Targets: 169
• Target year: 2030
• Universal applicability
• Central principle: Leave No One Behind
• All 17 SDGs
• 5Ps of SDGs
• People + Planet + Prosperity + Peace + Partnership
• Important Environment-related SDGs

• MDGs vs SDGs
• Exam Trap

SDGs replace/succeed MDGs.

SDGs केवल developing countries के लिए नहीं हैं।

“Life Below Water” and “Life on Land” SDGs हैं, MDGs नहीं।

• मानव–पर्यावरण अंतःक्रिया

Human beings depend on nature for:

• Food
• Water
• Energy
• Minerals
• Land
• Forest products
• Ecosystem services

At the same time, human activities modify the environment.

• Positive Interaction
• Afforestation
• Rainwater harvesting
• Renewable energy
• Organic farming
• Waste recycling
• Wetland restoration
• Wildlife conservation
• Negative Interaction
• Deforestation
• Mining
• Fossil-fuel combustion
• Industrial discharge
• Overgrazing
• Excessive groundwater extraction
• Urban sprawl
• Plastic pollution

• मानवजनित गतिविधियाँ

Anthropogenic means originating from human activities.

• IPAT Equation

Where:

• Interpretation

Environmental impact केवल population से निर्धारित नहीं होता; consumption pattern और technology भी महत्वपूर्ण हैं।

• Local Issues

सीमित क्षेत्र को प्रभावित करते हैं।

• Urban noise
• Local water contamination
• Solid-waste dumping
• Indoor air pollution
• Regional Issues

कई districts, states या countries को प्रभावित कर सकते हैं।

• Acid rain
• River-basin pollution
• Desertification
• Transboundary haze
• Global Issues

पूरी पृथ्वी या global systems को प्रभावित करते हैं।

• Climate change
• Ozone depletion
• Biodiversity loss
• Ocean acidification
• Exam Trap

Pollutant local source से निकल सकता है, लेकिन उसका impact regional या global हो सकता है।

• वायु प्रदूषण

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere at concentrations harmful to health, ecosystems or materials.

• Major Air Pollutants
• Primary Pollutants

Directly emitted.

Examples: CO, SO₂, NO, particulate matter.

• Secondary Pollutants

Atmosphere में chemical reactions द्वारा बनते हैं।

Examples: Ground-level ozone, PAN, photochemical smog components.

• Smog
• Classical/London Smog
• Cool and humid conditions
• Coal smoke + SO₂
• Reducing/sulphurous smog
• Photochemical/Los Angeles Smog
• Sunlight + NOₓ + VOCs
• Ground-level ozone and PAN
• Oxidising smog
• Exam Formula

• Acid Rain

Primarily associated with emissions of:

• Sulphur dioxide
• Nitrogen oxides

These form sulphuric and nitric acids in the atmosphere.

• Effects
• Soil and water acidification
• Forest damage
• Aquatic-life damage
• Corrosion of buildings and monuments
• Exam Trap

CO₂ is related to climate change, but SO₂ and NOₓ are the principal precursors of acid rain.

• जल प्रदूषण

Water pollution is the undesirable alteration of physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water.

• Sources
• Domestic sewage
• Industrial effluents
• Agricultural runoff
• Oil spills
• Thermal discharge
• Mining waste
• Plastic waste
• Pathogens
• Important Indicators
• Dissolved Oxygen — DO

Water में dissolved oxygen.

• Severe organic pollution can reduce DO
• Biological Oxygen Demand — BOD

Microorganisms द्वारा biodegradable organic matter को decompose करने के लिए required oxygen.

• Chemical Oxygen Demand — COD

Water में oxidisable matter को chemically oxidise करने के लिए oxygen equivalent।

COD biodegradable और certain non-biodegradable oxidisable matter को भी reflect कर सकता है।

• DO–BOD Relationship

• Eutrophication

Excess nutrients—especially nitrogen and phosphorus—cause rapid algal growth.

• Process

• Biomagnification

Non-biodegradable toxic substances की concentration food chain के higher trophic levels पर बढ़ती जाती है।

Examples: Mercury, DDT.

• Bioaccumulation

एक organism के body में pollutant का समय के साथ accumulate होना।

• Difference

• Causes
• Excessive pesticides and fertilisers
• Industrial waste
• Mining
• Plastic and e-waste
• Salinisation
• Deforestation
• Overgrazing
• Improper irrigation
• Urban construction
• Effects
• Reduced soil fertility
• Groundwater contamination
• Toxicity in food chain
• Soil erosion
• Desertification
• Loss of microorganisms
• Control Measures
• Organic manure
• Integrated pest management
• Crop rotation
• Afforestation
• Controlled grazing
• Scientific waste disposal
• Soil and water conservation

• ध्वनि प्रदूषण

Noise is unwanted or unpleasant sound.

• Unit
• Decibel — dB
• Sources
• Traffic
• Aircraft
• Industries
• Construction
• Loudspeakers
• Generators
• Effects
• Hearing loss
• Stress
• Sleep disturbance
• Hypertension
• Reduced concentration
• Communication interference
• Important Concept

Decibel scale is logarithmic, not simple linear.

• Control
• Sound barriers
• Silencers
• Green belts
• Zoning
• Equipment maintenance
• Restrictions near silence zones

• अपशिष्ट एवं प्रकार
• Solid Waste
• Household waste
• Commercial waste
• Construction waste
• Agricultural waste
• Municipal waste
• Liquid Waste
• Sewage
• Industrial effluent
• Chemical discharge
• Oil and wastewater
• Biomedical Waste

Waste generated during diagnosis, treatment, immunisation or biomedical research.

Examples: Needles, contaminated dressings, pathological waste.

• Hazardous Waste

Waste with toxic, corrosive, ignitable, reactive or environmentally dangerous properties.

• Electronic Waste

Discarded electrical and electronic equipment.

Examples: Computers, phones, circuit boards, batteries.

• Major E-waste Concerns
• Lead
• Mercury
• Cadmium
• Brominated substances
• Informal burning and acid extraction

Highest preference: waste prevention. Lowest preference: final disposal.

• Waste Treatment Methods
• Exam Traps

Open dumping and sanitary landfill समान नहीं।

Incineration waste volume घटाता है, लेकिन emission-control system आवश्यक है।

Biomedical and hazardous waste को mixed municipal waste के साथ नहीं डालना चाहिए।

Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns. Present rapid warming is strongly linked to anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions.

• Major Greenhouse Gases
• Carbon dioxide — CO₂
• Methane — CH₄
• Nitrous oxide — N₂O
• Water vapour
• Ozone
• Fluorinated gases
• Sources
• Greenhouse Effect

Natural greenhouse effect पृथ्वी को habitable रखता है। Human emissions से इसका enhancement warming बढ़ाता है।

• Exam Trap

Greenhouse effect itself entirely harmful नहीं है; enhanced greenhouse effect climate-change concern है।

• Climate Change Impacts
• Heatwaves
• Glacier retreat
• Sea-level rise
• Changing rainfall
• Flood and drought risk
• Crop stress
• Water insecurity
• Biodiversity loss
• Health risks
• Climate migration
• Mitigation vs Adaptation

Mitigation treats causes; adaptation manages consequences.

• Economic Dimensions
• Crop and livelihood losses
• Infrastructure damage
• Health expenditure
• Insurance risks
• Energy transition cost
• Green jobs and innovation opportunities
• Social Dimensions
• Unequal vulnerability
• Food and water insecurity
• Displacement
• Gendered impacts
• Health inequality
• Threats to indigenous and coastal communities
• Political Dimensions
• Climate negotiations
• Climate finance
• Technology transfer
• Historical responsibility
• Carbon markets
• Energy security
• International cooperation
• Climate Justice

Those who have contributed least to climate change may face some of its most severe impacts.

• CBDR-RC
• Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities

Climate protection is a shared responsibility.

Countries' historical contributions and capabilities differ.

Therefore, obligations need differentiation.

• Vulnerable Groups
• Children
• Older persons
• Pregnant women
• Outdoor workers
• Persons with respiratory illness
• Low-income communities

• Renewable Resources

Resources that can be replenished naturally on a human timescale.

• Solar
• Wind
• Hydropower
• Biomass
• Geothermal
• Non-renewable Resources

Finite resources formed over geological time.

• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural gas
• Uranium
• Exam Trap

Nuclear energy is usually classified as non-renewable because uranium is finite, though its operational carbon emissions are comparatively low.

Solar radiation converted into electricity or heat.

• Types
• Solar photovoltaic
• Solar thermal
• Concentrated solar power
• Advantages
• Renewable
• Low operational emissions
• Suitable for decentralised generation
• Limitations
• Intermittency
• Storage requirement
• Land and material requirements
• Initial cost

Moving air rotates turbines to generate electricity.

• Advantages
• Renewable
• Low operational emissions
• Low water use
• Limitations
• Variable output
• Site-specific
• Grid integration required
• Possible bird/bat and landscape impacts

Energy from moving or falling water.

• Advantages
• Renewable
• Flexible electricity generation
• Storage and irrigation benefits possible
• Limitations
• Displacement
• Habitat fragmentation
• Sediment-flow alteration
• Aquatic ecosystem impacts
• Exam Trap

Renewable does not mean impact-free.

Earth's internal heat का उपयोग electricity या heating के लिए।

• Advantages
• Relatively continuous supply
• Low operational emissions
• Limitations
• Location-specific
• High initial drilling cost
• Possible induced seismicity and fluid-management concerns

Energy derived from organic material.

Examples: Crop residue, wood, animal waste, biogas.

• Advantages
• Waste utilisation
• Rural-energy potential
• Stored and dispatchable form possible
• Limitations
• Indoor and outdoor pollution if poorly burned
• Land-use pressure
• Deforestation risk
• Not automatically carbon-neutral

Energy obtained through nuclear fission.

• Advantages
• High energy density
• Low operational carbon emissions
• Reliable baseload potential
• Challenges
• Radioactive waste
• Accident risk
• High capital cost
• Decommissioning
• Security and proliferation concerns

• Ecological Functions
• Carbon sequestration
• Biodiversity conservation
• Soil protection
• Water-cycle regulation
• Local climate regulation
• Socio-economic Functions
• Timber and non-timber products
• Fuelwood
• Livelihoods
• Cultural and recreational values
• Threats
• Deforestation
• Fragmentation
• Fire
• Mining
• Encroachment
• Invasive species

Soil supports:

• Agriculture
• Nutrient cycling
• Water filtration
• Carbon storage
• Biodiversity
• Conservation Measures
• Contour ploughing
• Terracing
• Shelter belts
• Afforestation
• Crop rotation
• Mulching
• Controlled grazing

• Hazard

Potentially damaging event or condition.

• Disaster

Serious disruption occurring when a hazard affects a vulnerable and exposed community beyond its coping capacity.

• Risk Formula

• Important Point

Every hazard does not necessarily become a disaster.

• Types of Hazards
• Geological
• Earthquake
• Tsunami
• Landslide
• Volcanic eruption
• Hydro-meteorological
• Flood
• Cyclone
• Drought
• Heatwave
• Cloudburst
• Biological
• Epidemic
• Pandemic
• Pest attack
• Anthropogenic/Technological
• Industrial accident
• Chemical leak
• Nuclear accident
• Fire
• Oil spill

• Prevention

Hazard-related risk को avoid करना।

• Mitigation

Probable damage को reduce करना। Examples: Earthquake-resistant buildings, embankments.

• Preparedness

Disaster से पहले readiness। Examples: Training, drills, early-warning systems.

• Response

Disaster के दौरान और तुरंत बाद action। Examples: Rescue, relief, emergency medical support.

• Recovery

Normal functioning restore करना।

• Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

Long-term livelihood and infrastructure restoration.

• Structural Measures

Physical engineering interventions.

• Non-structural Measures

Policies, awareness, insurance, warning, training and land-use planning.

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is commonly described as an umbrella legislation for environmental protection in India.

• Main Features
• Protection and improvement of environment
• Central Government को broad powers
• Environmental-quality standards
• Regulation of industrial location and operations
• Control of hazardous substances
• Inspection and information powers

Directions, including regulation or closure in legally appropriate situations

• Historical Association

India's environmental commitments following the Stockholm Conference, 1972

• Enacted in the context following the Bhopal gas disaster
• Important Laws and Years
• Chronology Formula

• राष्ट्रीय जलवायु परिवर्तन कार्ययोजना

NAPCC was launched in 2008 and traditionally contains eight national missions.

• Eight Missions
• National Solar Mission
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
• National Water Mission
• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
• Green India Mission
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
• Recall Sequence

• A. Stockholm Conference, 1972
• United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
• First major global environmental conference
• Associated with establishment of UNEP
• World Environment Day: 5 June
• B. Montreal Protocol, 1987
• Ozone-depleting substances
• CFCs, halons and related substances
• Ozone-layer protection

• C. Rio Earth Summit, 1992

Officially: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

Major outcomes:

• Rio Declaration
• Agenda 21
• UNFCCC
• Convention on Biological Diversity
• Forest Principles

• D. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992
• Three Objectives
• Conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use
• Fair and equitable benefit-sharing from genetic resources
• E. Kyoto Protocol, 1997
• Under UNFCCC
• Binding emission targets primarily for developed countries
• Principle of differentiated responsibility
• Kyoto Mechanisms
• Emissions Trading
• Clean Development Mechanism
• Joint Implementation

• F. Paris Agreement, 2015
• Adopted at COP21
• Under UNFCCC
• Temperature goal: well below 2°C
• Pursue efforts toward 1.5°C
• Nationally Determined Contributions
• Mitigation, adaptation and climate finance

• G. International Solar Alliance
• India–France initiative
• Announced during COP21 in 2015
• Promotes international cooperation in solar energy
• Headquarters in India

• Exam Trap

Montreal is about ozone, not primarily climate-emission targets.

Kyoto and Paris operate under the climate framework.

CBD emerged from the 1992 Rio process.

Rio Summit happened before Kyoto Protocol.

Paris Agreement uses nationally determined commitments; Kyoto emphasised binding targets for specified developed parties.

Match MDGs with their aims:

• Options
• A–I, B–III, C–II, D–IV
• A–II, B–IV, C–III, D–I
• A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II
• A–IV, B–II, C–I, D–III

Explanation: MDG 1 poverty, MDG 2 primary education, MDG 3 gender equality और MDG 4 child mortality से संबंधित था।

Arrange from older to newer:

A. Paris Agreement
B. Convention on Biological Diversity
C. Kyoto Protocol
D. Montreal Protocol
E. Stockholm Conference

• Options
• B, D, C, E, A
• B, C, D, E, A
• E, D, C, B, A
• E, D, B, C, A

Match the agreement/action plan with its provision:

• Options
• A–III, B–II, C–I, D–IV
• A–II, B–III, C–I, D–IV
• A–II, B–IV, C–III, D–I
• A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II

Under which agreement was it decided to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C?

• Paris Agreement
• Kyoto Protocol
• Montreal Protocol
• Rio Summit

Explanation: Paris Agreement का लक्ष्य warming को pre-industrial level से well below 2°C रखना और 1.5°C तक सीमित करने का प्रयास करना है।

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 resulted from India's commitment to environmental protection at:

• Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer, 1985
• Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
• UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972

Explanation: Act की preambular background में Stockholm Conference के decisions और India की international commitment महत्वपूर्ण हैं।

Match the environmental laws with their enactment years:

• Options
• A–I, B–III, C–II, D–IV
• A–II, B–IV, C–III, D–I
• A–III, B–II, C–I, D–IV
• A–II, B–III, C–IV, D–I

• Increasingly Important Question Style
• Multi-statement correct combination
• Chronological sequencing
• Match List I with List II
• Classroom or policy scenario
• Similar terms का distinction
• Absolute statements को identify करना
• One issue with multiple impacts

Which statement correctly distinguishes MDGs and SDGs?

A. MDGs had 17 goals and SDGs have 8 goals.
B. Both contain exactly the same goals.
C. MDGs had 8 goals; SDGs have 17 universal goals.
D. SDGs were completed in 2015.

Explanation: MDGs were eight goals up to 2015; SDGs contain 17 goals for the 2030 Agenda.

"Leave No One Behind" is principally associated with:

A. Kyoto Protocol
B. Montreal Protocol
C. 2030 Agenda and SDGs
D. Wildlife Protection Act

Which SDG is directly associated with responsible consumption and production?

• A. SDG 7
• B. SDG 10
• C. SDG 12
• D. SDG 15

High BOD in a water body generally indicates:

A. Absence of organic matter
B. High organic pollution
C. High dissolved oxygen
D. Absence of microorganisms

Explanation: More biodegradable organic matter requires more oxygen for microbial decomposition.

Which combination primarily produces photochemical smog?

A. SO₂ + fog only
B. NOₓ + VOCs + sunlight
C. CO₂ + rainfall
D. Methane + snow

Pollutant concentration increases from plankton to small fish and then to large fish. This is:

A. Bioaccumulation only
B. Biomagnification
C. Eutrophication
D. Desertification

Which is primarily a climate-change adaptation measure?

A. Replacing coal with solar power
B. Increasing forest carbon sinks
C. Developing drought-resistant crops
D. Improving industrial energy efficiency

Explanation: Drought-resistant crops help society adjust to climate impacts; other options mainly reduce emissions.

Statement I: Every renewable-energy project is environmentally impact-free.
Statement II: Hydropower can affect habitats and displace communities.

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Statement I true, Statement II false
D. Statement I false, Statement II true

Which mission is not one of the original eight missions under NAPCC?

A. National Solar Mission
B. National Water Mission
C. Green India Mission
D. National Ocean Cleaning Mission

Which agreement primarily addresses ozone-depleting substances?

A. Paris Agreement
B. Kyoto Protocol
C. Montreal Protocol
D. Convention on Biological Diversity

Which group correctly represents the Kyoto mechanisms?

A. NDC, adaptation and climate finance
B. Emissions Trading, CDM and Joint Implementation
C. Agenda 21, CBD and Forest Principles
D. Recycling, composting and landfilling

Earthquake-resistant construction is primarily an example of:

A. Disaster response
B. Rehabilitation
C. Mitigation
D. Relief distribution

Which correctly expresses disaster risk?

A. Risk increases when capacity increases.
B. Hazard alone always produces disaster.
C. Risk increases with hazard, exposure and vulnerability.
D. Vulnerability has no role in disaster.

Which waste-management option has the highest preference?

• A. Disposal
• B. Incineration
• C. Recycling
• D. Refuse/prevention

Assertion: Climate change is also a social-justice issue.
Reason: Vulnerability and historical responsibility are unequally distributed.

A. Both are true and Reason correctly explains Assertion
B. Both are true but Reason does not explain Assertion
C. Assertion true, Reason false
D. Assertion false, Reason true

Which pollutant mainly reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood?

A. Carbon monoxide
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Sulphur dioxide
D. Ground-level ozone

Explanation: CO binds strongly with haemoglobin, interfering with oxygen transport.

Match the law with the year:

• Options
• A–II, B–III, C–IV, D–I
• A–III, B–II, C–I, D–IV
• A–IV, B–I, C–II, D–III
• A–I, B–IV, C–III, D–II

• Development

• Sustainable Development
• Economy + Society + Environment
• Pollution Formulae

• Climate

• Waste

• Disaster

• Indian Laws

• International Chronology

• Agreement Associations

• Exam-solving Approach